Marks’ Basic Medical Biochemistry A Clinical Approach 6th Lieberman Peet Test Bank

Marks' Basic Medical Biochemistry A Clinical Approach 6th Lieberman Peet Test Bank

Overview

Marks' Basic Medical Biochemistry A Clinical Approach 6th Lieberman Peet Test Bank provides a comprehensive understanding of biochemistry with a strong emphasis on clinical correlations, making complex biochemical concepts accessible and relevant to medical practice. The text integrates clinical case studies and diagnostic insights throughout, helping students and professionals apply biochemical knowledge to real-world medical scenarios.Pass your classes with ease with this great study source!           

1. 1 Metabolic Fuels and Dietary Components
2. I. Dietary Fuels
3. A. Carbohydrates
4. B. Proteins
5. C. Fats
6. D. Alcohol
7. II. Body Fuel Stores
8. A. Fat
9. B. Glycogen
10. C. Protein
11. III. Daily Energy Expenditure
12. A. Basal Metabolic Rate
13. B. Physical Activity
14. C. Diet-Induced Thermogenesis
15. D. Calculations of Daily Energy Expenditure
16. E. Healthy Body Weight
17. F. Weight Gain and Loss
18. IV. Dietary Requirements
19. A. Carbohydrates
20. B. Essential Fatty Acids
21. C. Protein
22. D. Vitamins
23. E. Minerals
24. F. Water
25. V. Dietary Guidelines
26. A. General Recommendations
27. B. Carbohydrates
28. C. Fats
29. D. Proteins
30. E. Alcohol
31. F. Vitamins and Minerals
32. VI. Xenobiotics
33. Chapter 1: Review Questions
34. 2 The Fed or Absorptive State
35. I. Digestion and Absorption
36. A. Carbohydrates
37. B. Proteins
38. C. Fats
39. II. Changes in Hormone Levels after a Meal
40. III. Fate of Glucose
41. A. Conversion to Glycogen, Triacylglycerols, and CO2 in the Liver
42. B. Glucose Metabolism in Other Tissues
43. IV. Lipoproteins
44. V. Amino Acids
45. VI. Summary of the Fed (Absorptive) State
46. Chapter 2: Review Questions
47. 3 Fasting
48. I. The Fasting State
49. A. Blood Glucose and the Role of the Liver during Fasting
50. B. Role of Adipose Tissue during Fasting
51. C. Summary of the Metabolic Changes during a Brief Fast
52. II. Metabolic Changes during Prolonged Fasting
53. A. Role of Liver during Prolonged Fasting
54. B. Role of Adipose Tissue during Prolonged Fasting
55. Chapter 3: Review Questions
56. Section II: Chemical and Biologic Foundations of Biochemistry
57. 4 Water, Acids, Bases, and Buffers
58. I. Water
59. A. Fluid Compartments in the Body
60. B. Hydrogen Bonds in Water
61. C. Electrolytes
62. D. Osmolality and Water Movement
63. II. Acids and Bases
64. A. The pH of Water
65. B. Strong and Weak Acids
66. III. Buffers
67. IV. Metabolic Acids and Buffers
68. A. The Bicarbonate Buffer System
69. B. Bicarbonate and Hemoglobin in Red Blood Cells
70. C. Intracellular pH
71. D. Urinary Hydrogen, Ammonium, and Phosphate Ions
72. E. Hydrochloric Acid
73. Chapter 4: Review Questions
74. 5 Structures of the Major Compounds of the Body
75. I. Functional Groups on Biologic Compounds
76. A. Biologic Compounds
77. B. Functional Groups
78. C. Polarity of Bonds and Partial Charges
79. D. Nomenclature
80. II. Carbohydrates
81. A. Monosaccharides
82. B. Glycosides
83. III. Lipids
84. A. Fatty Acids
85. B. Acylglycerols
86. C. Phosphoacylglycerols
87. D. Sphingolipids
88. E. Steroids
89. IV. Nitrogen-Containing Compounds
90. A. Amino Acids
91. B. Nitrogen-Containing Ring Structures
92. V. Free Radicals
93. Chapter 5: Review Questions
94. 6 Amino Acids in Proteins
95. I. General Structure of the Amino Acids
96. II. Classification of Amino Acid Side Chains
97. A. Nonpolar, Aliphatic Amino Acids
98. B. Aromatic Amino Acids
99. C. Aliphatic, Polar, Uncharged Amino Acids
100. D. Sulfur-Containing Amino Acids
101. E. The Acidic and Basic Amino Acids
102. III. Variations in Primary Structure
103. A. Polymorphism in Protein Structure
104. B. Tissue and Developmental Variations in Protein Structure
105. C. Species Variations in the Primary Structure of Insulin
106. A. Protein Families and Superfamilies
107. B. Creatine Kinase and Myocardial Infarctions
108. IV. Modified Amino Acids
109. A. Glycosylation
110. B. Fatty Acylation or Prenylation
111. C. Regulatory Modifications
112. D. Other Amino Acid Posttranslational Modifications
113. E. Selenocysteine
114. Chapter 6: Review Questions
115. 7 Structure–Function Relationships in Proteins
116. I. General Characteristics of Three-Dimensional Structure
117. A. Descriptions of Protein Structure
118. B. Requirements of the Three-Dimensional Structure
119. II. The Three-Dimensional Structure of the Peptide Backbone
120. III. Secondary Structure
121. A. The α-Helix
122. B. β-Sheets
123. C. Nonrepetitive Secondary Structures
124. D. Patterns of Secondary Structure
125. IV. Tertiary Structure
126. A. Domains in the Tertiary Structure
127. B. Folds in Globular Proteins
128. C. The Solubility of Globular Proteins in an Aqueous Environment
129. D. Tertiary Structure of Transmembrane Proteins
130. V. Quaternary Structure
131. VI. Quantitation of Ligand Binding
132. VII. Structure–Function Relationships in Myoglobin and Hemoglobin
133. A. Oxygen Binding and Heme
134. B. Cooperativity of O2 Binding in Hemoglobin
135. C. Agents That Affect Oxygen Binding
136. C. Carbon Dioxide
137. VIII. Structure–Function Relationships in Immunoglobulins
138. IX. Protein Folding
139. A. Primary Structure Determines Folding
140. B. Fibrous Proteins—Collagen
141. C. Protein Denaturation
142. Chapter 7: Review Questions
143. 8 Enzymes as Catalysts
144. I. The Enzyme-Catalyzed Reaction
145. A. The Active Site
146. B. Substrate-Binding Sites
147. C. The Transition-State Complex
148. II. Strategies for Catalysis
149. A. General Acid–Base Catalysis
150. II. Catalytic Mechanism of Chymotrypsin
151. A. The Reaction in the Absence of Enzyme
152. B. Catalytic Strategies in the Reaction Catalyzed by Chymotrypsin
153. C. Energy Diagram in the Presence of Chymotrypsin
154. B. Covalent Catalysis
155. C. Metal-Ion Catalysis
156. D. Catalysis by Approximation
157. E. Cofactor Catalysis
158. III. Functional Groups in Catalysis
159. A. Functional Groups on Amino Acid Side Chains
160. B. Coenzymes in Catalysis
161. C. Metal Ions in Catalysis (See Also Section II.C)
162. D. Noncatalytic Roles of Cofactors
163. IV. Optimal pH and Temperature
164. V. Mechanism-Based Inhibitors
165. A. Covalent Inhibitors
166. B. Transition-State Analogs and Compounds That Resemble Intermediate Stages of the Reaction
167. C. Heavy Metals
168. Chapter 8: Review Questions
169. 9 Regulation of Enzymes
170. I. General Overview
171. II. Regulation by Substrate and Product Concentration
172. A. Velocity and Substrate Concentration
173. B. Reversible Inhibition within the Active Site
174. III. Regulation through Conformational Changes
175. A. Conformational Changes in Allosteric Enzymes
176. B. Conformational Changes from Covalent Modification
177. C. Conformational Changes Regulated by Protein–Protein Interactions
178. D. Proteolytic Cleavage
179. IV. Regulation through Changes in Amount of Enzyme
180. A. Regulated Enzyme Synthesis
181. B. Regulated Protein Degradation
182. V. Regulation of Metabolic Pathways
183. A. Principles of Pathway Regulation
184. Chapter 9: Review Questions
185. 10 Cell Structure and Signaling by Chemical Messengers
186. I. Compartmentation in Cells
187. II. Plasma Membrane
188. A. Structure of the Plasma Membrane
189. B. Transport of Molecules across the Plasma Membrane
190. III. Lysosomes
191. IV. Mitochondria
192. V. Peroxisomes
193. VI. Nucleus
194. VII. Endoplasmic Reticulum
195. VIII. Golgi Complex
196. IX. Cytoskeleton
197. X. General Features of Chemical Messengers
198. A. General Features of Chemical Messenger Systems Applied to the Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor
199. B. Endocrine, Paracrine, Autocrine, and Juxtacrine Actions
200. C. Types of Chemical Messengers
201. XI. Intracellular Transcription Factor Receptors
202. A. Intracellular versus Plasma Membrane Receptors
203. B. The Steroid Hormone/Thyroid Hormone Superfamily of Receptors
204. XII. Plasma Membrane Receptors and Signal Transduction
205. A. Ion-Channel Receptors
206. B. Receptors That Are Kinases or That Bind Kinases
207. C. Heptahelical Receptors
208. D. Juxtacrine Signaling
209. XIII. Signal Termination
210. Chapter 10: Review Questions
211. 11 Structure of the Nucleic Acids
212. I. DNA Structure
213. A. Location of DNA
214. B. Determination of the Structure of DNA
215. C. Concept of Base Pairing
216. D. DNA Strands Are Antiparallel
217. E. The Double Helix
218. F. Characteristics of DNA
219. II. Structure of Chromosomes
220. A. Size of DNA Molecules
221. B. Packaging of DNA
222. C. The Human Genome
223. III. Structure of RNA
224. A. General Features of RNA
225. B. Structure of mRNA
226. C. Structure of rRNA
227. D. Structure of tRNA
228. E. Other Types of RNA
229. Chapter 11: Review Questions
230. Section III: Gene Expression and the Synthesis of Proteins
231. 12 Synthesis of DNA
232. I. DNA Synthesis in Prokaryotes
233. A. Bidirectional Replication
234. B. Semiconservative Replication
235. C. DNA Unwinding
236. D. DNA Polymerase Action
237. E. Base-Pairing Errors
238. F. RNA Primer Requirement
239. G. The Replication Fork
240. H. DNA Ligase
241. II. DNA Synthesis in Eukaryotes
242. A. Eukaryotic Cell Cycle
243. B. Points of Origin for Replication
244. C. Eukaryotic DNA Polymerases
245. D. The Eukaryotic Replication Complex
246. E. Replication at the Ends of Chromosomes
247. III. DNA Repair
248. A. Actions of Mutagens
249. B. Repair Mechanisms
250. IV. Genetic Rearrangements
251. A. General or Homologous Recombination
252. B. Translocations
253. C. Repair of Single- and Double-Strand Breaks in DNA
254. D. Transposable Elements
255. V. Reverse Transcriptase
256. Chapter 12: Review Questions
257. 13 Transcription: Synthesis of RNA
258. I. Action of RNA Polymerase
259. II. Types of RNA Polymerases
260. A. Sequences of Genes
261. B. Recognition of Genes by RNA Polymerase
262. C. Promoter Regions of Genes for mRNA
263. III. Transcription of Bacterial Genes
264. IV. Transcription of Eukaryotic Genes
265. A. Synthesis of Eukaryotic mRNA
266. B. Synthesis of Eukaryotic rRNA
267. C. Synthesis of Eukaryotic tRNA
268. V. Differences in Size between Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic DNA
269. A. Diploid versus Haploid
270. B. Introns
271. C. Repetitive Sequences in Eukaryotic DNA
272. D. Summary of the Differences between Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic DNA and RNA
273. Chapter 13: Review Questions
274. 14 Translation: Synthesis of Proteins
275. I. The Genetic Code
276. A. The Code Is Degenerate Yet Unambiguous
277. B. The Code Is Nonoverlapping
278. C. Relationship between mRNA and the Protein Product
279. II. Effects of Mutations
280. A. Point Mutations
281. B. Insertions, Deletions, and Frameshift Mutations
282. III. Formation of Aminoacyl-tRNA
283. IV. Process of Translation
284. A. Initiation of Translation
285. B. Elongation of Polypeptide Chains
286. C. Termination of Translation
287. V. Polysomes
288. VI. Processing of Proteins
289. VII. Posttranslational Modifications
290. VIII. Targeting of Proteins to Subcellular and Extracellular Locations
291. Chapter 14: Review Questions
292. 15 Regulation of Gene Expression
293. I. Gene Expression Is Regulated for Adaptation and Differentiation
294. II. Regulation of Gene Expression in Prokaryotes
295. A. Operons
296. B. Regulation of RNA Polymerase Binding by Repressors
297. C. Stimulation of RNA Polymerase Binding
298. D. Regulation of RNA Polymerase Binding by Sigma Factors
299. E. Attenuation of Transcription
300. III. Regulation of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes
301. A. Regulation at Multiple Levels
302. B. Regulation of Availability of Genes for Transcription
303. C. Regulation at the Level of Transcription
304. D. Posttranscriptional Processing of RNA
305. E. Regulation at the Level of Translation and the Stability of mRNA
306. F. Transport and Stability of mRNA
307. Chapter 15: Review Questions
308. 16 Use of Recombinant DNA Techniques in Medicine
309. I. Recombinant DNA Techniques
310. A. Strategies for Obtaining Fragments of DNA and Copies of Genes
311. B. Techniques for Identifying DNA Sequences
312. C. Techniques for Amplifying DNA Sequences
313. II. Use of Recombinant DNA Techniques for Diagnosis of Disease
314. A. DNA Polymorphisms
315. B. Detection of Polymorphisms
316. III. Use of Recombinant DNA Techniques for the Prevention and Treatment of Disease
317. A. Vaccines
318. B. Production of Therapeutic Proteins
319. C. Small Interfering RNA (SiRNA)
320. D. Genetic Counseling
321. E. Gene Therapy
322. F. The CRISPR/Cas System
323. G. Transgenic Animals
324. IV. Proteomics
325. Chapter 16: Review Questions
326. 17 The Molecular Biology of Cancer
327. I. Causes of Cancer
328. II. Damage to DNA Leading to Mutations
329. A. Chemical and Physical Alterations in DNA
330. B. Gain-of-Function Mutations in Proto-oncogenes
331. C. Mutations in Repair Enzymes
332. III. Oncogenes
333. A. Oncogenes and Signal Transduction Cascades
334. B. Oncogenes and the Cell Cycle
335. IV. Tumor-Suppressor Genes
336. A. Tumor-Suppressor Genes That Regulate the Cell Cycle Directly
337. B. Tumor-Suppressor Genes That Affect Receptors and Signal Transduction
338. C. Tumor-Suppressor Genes That Affect Cell Adhesion
339. D. Tumor-Suppressor Genes Linked to DNA Repair
340. V. Cancer and Apoptosis
341. A. Normal Pathways to Apoptosis
342. B. Cancer Cells Bypass Apoptosis
343. C. MicroRNAs and Apoptosis
344. VI. Cancer Requires Multiple Mutations
345. VII. At the Molecular Level, Cancer Is Many Different Diseases
346. VIII. Viruses and Human Cancer
347. Chapter 17: Review Questions
348. 18 An Introduction to Human Genetics
349. I. Mendelian Inheritance Patterns
350. II. Genes
351. III. Mutations
352. IV. Inheritance Patterns
353. A. Autosomal Dominant Inheritance
354. B. Autosomal Recessive Inheritance
355. C. X-linked Inheritance
356. D. Mitochondrial Inheritance
357. V. Cytogenetics
358. A. Mitosis and Cell Division
359. B. Meiosis and Gamete Formation
360. C. Chromosome Structure and Nomenclature
361. D. Abnormalities of Chromosome Number
362. E. Abnormalities of Chromosome Structure
363. F. Prenatal Cytogenetics
364. VI. Population Genetics
365. VII. Multifactorial Diseases (Complex Traits)
366. VIII. Triplet Nucleotide Repeat Expansions
367. IX. Imprinting
368. X. Epigenetics
369. XI. The Genetics of Tumor Suppressors
370. Chapter 18: Review Questions
371. Section IV: Carbohydrate Metabolism, Fuel Oxidation, and the Generation of Adenosine Triphosphate
372. 19 Basic Concepts in the Regulation of Fuel Metabolism by Insulin, Glucagon, and Other Hormones
373. I. Metabolic Homeostasis
374. II. Major Hormones of Metabolic Homeostasis
375. III. Synthesis and Release of Insulin and Glucagon
376. A. Endocrine Pancreas
377. B. Synthesis and Secretion of Insulin
378. C. Stimulation and Inhibition of Insulin Release
379. D. Synthesis and Secretion of Glucagon
380. IV. Mechanisms of Hormone Action
381. A. Signal Transduction by Hormones That Bind to Plasma Membrane Receptors
382. B. Signal Transduction by Cortisol and Other Hormones That Interact with Intracellular Receptors
383. C. Signal Transduction by Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
384. Chapter 19: Review Questions
385. 20 Cellular Bioenergetics: Adenosine Triphosphate and O2
386. I. Energy Available to Do Work
387. A. The High-Energy Phosphate Bonds of ATP
388. B. Change in Free Energy (ΔG) during a Reaction
389. C. Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
390. II. Energy Transformations to Do Mechanical and Transport Work
391. A. Mechanical Work
392. B. Transport Work
393. III. Biochemical Work
394. A. Adding ΔG0 Values
395. B. ΔG Depends on Substrate and Product Concentrations
396. C. Activated Intermediates with High-Energy Bonds
397. IV. Thermogenesis
398. V. Energy from Fuel Oxidation
399. A. Energy Transfer from Fuels through Oxidative Phosphorylation
400. B. NADPH in Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
401. C. Anaerobic Glycolysis
402. VI. Oxygenases and Oxidases Not Involved in ATP Generation
403. A. Oxidases
404. B. Oxygenases
405. VII. Energy Balance
406. Chapter 20: Review Questions
407. 21 Digestion, Absorption, and Transport of Carbohydrates
408. I. Dietary Carbohydrates
409. II. Digestion of Dietary Carbohydrates
410. A. Salivary and Pancreatic α-Amylase
411. B. Disaccharidases of the Intestinal Brush-Border Membrane
412. C. Metabolism of Sugars by Colonic Bacteria
413. D. Lactose Intolerance
414. III. Dietary Fiber
415. IV. Absorption of Sugars
416. A. Absorption by the Intestinal Epithelium
417. B. Transport of Monosaccharides into Tissues
418. V. Glucose Transport through the Blood–Brain Barrier and into Neurons
419. Chapter 21: Review Questions
420. 22 Generation of Adenosine Triphosphate from Glucose, Fructose, and Galactose: Glycolysis
421. I. Glycolysis
422. A. The Reactions of Glycolysis
423. B. Fructose
424. C. Galactose Metabolism; Conversion to Glucose 1-Phosphate
425. D. Oxidative Fates of Pyruvate and NADH
426. E. Anaerobic Glycolysis
427. II. Other Functions of Glycolysis
428. III. Regulation of Glycolysis by the Need for ATP
429. A. Relationships among ATP, ADP, and AMP Concentrations
430. B. Regulation of Hexokinases
431. C. Regulation of PFK-1
432. D. Regulation of Pyruvate Kinase
433. IV. Lactic Acidemia
434. Chapter 22: Review Questions
435. 23 Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
436. I. Overview of the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
437. II. Reactions of the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
438. A. Formation and Oxidation of Isocitrate
439. B. α-Ketoglutarate to Succinyl Coenzyme A
440. C. Generation of Guanosine Triphosphate
441. D. Oxidation of Succinate to Oxaloacetate
442. III. Coenzymes of the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
443. A. Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide and NAD+
444. B. Role of Coenzyme A in the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
445. C. The α-Keto Acid Dehydrogenase Complexes
446. IV. Energetics of the Tricarboxylic Acid cycle
447. A. Overall Efficiency of the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
448. B. Thermodynamically and Kinetically Reversible and Irreversible Reactions
449. V. Regulation of the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
450. A. Regulation of Citrate Synthase
451. B. Allosteric Regulation of Isocitrate Dehydrogenase
452. C. Regulation of α-Ketoglutarate Dehydrogenase
453. D. Regulation of Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle Intermediates
454. VI. Precursors of Acetyl Coenzyme A
455. A. Sources of Acetyl Coenzyme A
456. B. Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex
457. VII. Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle Intermediates and Anaplerotic Reactions
458. A. Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle Intermediates Are Precursors for Biosynthetic Pathways
459. B. Anaplerotic Reactions
460. Chapter 23: Review Questions
461. 24 Oxidative Phosphorylation and Mitochondrial Function
462. I. Oxidative Phosphorylation
463. A. Overview of Oxidative Phosphorylation
464. B. Oxidation–Reduction Components of the Electron Transport Chain
465. C. Pumping of Protons
466. D. Energy Yield from the Electron Transport Chain
467. E. Cytoplasmic NADH
468. F. Respiratory Chain Inhibition and Sequential Transfer
469. II. OXPHOS Diseases
470. A. Mitochondrial DNA and OXPHOS Diseases
471. B. Other Genetic Disorders of Oxidative Phosphorylation
472. C. Lactic Acidosis
473. III. Coupling of Electron Transport and ATP Synthesis
474. A. Regulation through Coupling
475. B. Uncoupling ATP Synthesis from Electron Transport
476. IV. Transport through Inner and Outer Mitochondrial Membranes
477. A. Transport through the Inner Mitochondrial Membrane
478. B. Transport through the Outer Mitochondrial Membrane
479. C. The Mitochondrial Permeability Transition Pore
480. Chapter 24: Review Questions
481. 25 Oxygen Toxicity and Free-Radical Injury
482. I. O2 and the Generation of Reactive Oxygen Species
483. A. The Radical Nature of O2
484. B. Characteristics of Reactive Oxygen Species
485. C. Major Sources of Primary Reactive Oxygen Species in the Cell
486. II. Oxygen Radical Reactions with Cellular Components
487. A. Membrane Attack: Formation of Lipid and Lipid Peroxy Radicals
488. B. Proteins and Peptides
489. C. DNA
490. III. Nitric Oxide and Reactive Nitrogen–Oxygen Species
491. A. Nitric Oxide Synthase
492. B. NO Toxicity
493. IV. Formation of Free Radicals during Phagocytosis and Inflammation
494. A. NADPH Oxidase
495. B. Myeloperoxidase and HOCl
496. C. RNOS and Inflammation
497. V. Cellular Defenses against Oxygen Toxicity
498. A. Antioxidant Scavenging Enzymes
499. B. Nonenzymatic Antioxidants (Free-Radical Scavengers)
500. Chapter 25: Review Questions
501. 26 Formation and Degradation of Glycogen
502. I. Structure of Glycogen
503. II. Function of Glycogen in Skeletal Muscle and Liver
504. III. Synthesis and Degradation of Glycogen
505. A. Glycogen Synthesis
506. B. Glycogen Degradation
507. IV. Disorders of Glycogen Metabolism
508. V. Regulation of Glycogen Synthesis and Degradation
509. A. Regulation of Glycogen Metabolism in Liver
510. B. Regulation of Glycogen Synthesis and Degradation in Skeletal Muscle
511. Chapter 26: Review Questions
512. 27 Pentose Phosphate Pathway and the Synthesis of Glycosides, Lactose, Glycoproteins, and Glycolipids
513. I. The Pentose Phosphate Pathway
514. A. Oxidative Phase of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway
515. B. Nonoxidative Phase of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway
516. C. Role of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway in Generation of NADPH
517. II. Interconversions Involving Nucleotide Sugars
518. A. Reactions of UDP-Glucose
519. B. UDP-Glucuronate: A Source of Negative Charges
520. C. Glucuronides: A Source of Negative Charges
521. D. Synthesis of UDP-Galactose and Lactose from Glucose
522. E. Formation of Sugars for Glycolipid and Glycoprotein Synthesis
523. III. Glycoproteins
524. A. Structure and Function
525. B. Synthesis
526. IV. Glycolipids
527. A. Function and Structure
528. B. Synthesis
529. Chapter 27: Review Questions
530. 28 Gluconeogenesis and Maintenance of Blood Glucose Levels
531. I. Glucose Metabolism in the Liver
532. II. Gluconeogenesis
533. A. Precursors for Gluconeogenesis
534. B. Formation of Gluconeogenic Intermediates from Carbon Sources
535. C. Pathway of Gluconeogenesis
536. D. Regulation of Gluconeogenesis
537. E. Energy Is Required for the Synthesis of Glucose
538. III. Changes in Blood Glucose Levels after a Meal
539. A. Blood Glucose Levels in the Fed State
540. B. Blood Glucose Levels in the Fasting State
541. C. Blood Glucose Levels during Prolonged Fasting (Starvation)
542. D. Summary of Sources of Blood Glucose
543. E. Blood Glucose Levels during Exercise
544. Chapter 28: Review Questions
545. Section V: Lipid Metabolism
546. 29 Digestion and Transport of Dietary Lipids
547. I. Digestion of Triacylglycerols
548. A. Action of Bile Salts
549. B. Action of Pancreatic Lipase
550. II. Absorption of Dietary Lipids
551. III. Synthesis of Chylomicrons
552. IV. Transport of Dietary Lipids in the Blood
553. V. Fate of Chylomicrons
554. Chapter 29: Review Questions
555. 30 Oxidation of Fatty Acids and Ketone Bodies
556. I. Fatty Acids as Fuels
557. A. Characteristics of Fatty Acids Used as Fuels
558. B. Transport and Activation of Long-Chain Fatty Acids
559. C. β-Oxidation of Long-Chain Fatty Acids
560. D. Oxidation of Medium-Chain-Length Fatty Acids
561. E. Regulation of -Oxidation
562. II. Alternative Routes of Fatty Acid Oxidation
563. A. Peroxisomal Oxidation of Fatty Acids
564. B. β-Oxidation of Fatty Acids
565. III. Metabolism of Ketone Bodies
566. A. Synthesis of Ketone Bodies
567. B. Oxidation of Ketone Bodies as Fuels
568. C. Alternative Pathways of Ketone Body Metabolism
569. IV. The Role of Fatty Acids and Ketone Bodies in Fuel Homeostasis
570. A. Preferential Utilization of Fatty Acids
571. B. Tissues That Use Ketone Bodies
572. C. Regulation of Ketone Body Synthesis
573. Chapter 30: Review Questions
574. 31 Synthesis of Fatty Acids, Triacylglycerols, and the Major Membrane Lipids
575. I. Fatty Acid Synthesis
576. A. Conversion of Glucose to Cytosolic Acetyl Coenzyme A
577. B. Conversion of Acetyl CoA to Malonyl CoA
578. C. Fatty Acid Synthase Complex
579. D. Elongation of Fatty Acids
580. E. Desaturation of Fatty Acids
581. II. Synthesis of the Eicosanoids
582. A. Source of the Eicosanoids
583. B. Pathways for Eicosanoid Synthesis
584. Eicosanoids
585. I. Lipoxygenase Pathway: Synthesis of the Leukotrienes, HETE, and Lipoxins
586. A. Leukotriene Synthesis
587. B. Lipoxin Synthesis and Actions
588. II. Cytochrome P450 Pathway: Synthesis and Actions of Epoxides, HETEs, and diHETEs
589. III. Isoprostane Synthesis
590. IV. Endocannabinoid Synthesis
591. V. The Inflammatory Process
592. C. Cyclooxygenase Pathway: Synthesis of the Prostaglandins and Thromboxanes
593. D. Mechanism of Action of the Eicosanoids
594. III. Synthesis of Triacylglycerols and VLDL Particles
595. IV. Fate of the VLDL Triglyceride
596. V. Storage of Triacylglycerols in Adipose Tissue
597. VI. Release of Fatty Acids from Adipose Triacylglycerols
598. Glyceroneogenesis
599. Regulation of Fatty Acid Release by Glyceroneogenesis
600. VII. Metabolism of Glycerophospholipids and Sphingolipids
601. A. Synthesis of Phospholipids Containing Glycerol
602. B. Degradation of Glycerophospholipids
603. C. Sphingolipids
604. VIII. The Adipocyte as an Endocrine Organ
605. A. Leptin
606. B. Adiponectin
607. Chapter 31: Review Questions
608. 32 Cholesterol Absorption, Synthesis, Metabolism, and Fate
609. I. Intestinal Absorption of Cholesterol
610. II. Cholesterol Synthesis
611. A. Stage 1: Synthesis of Mevalonate from Acetyl CoA
612. B. Stage 2: Conversion of Mevalonate to Two Activated Isoprenes
613. C. Stage 3: Condensation of Six Activated 5-Carbon Isoprenes to Squalene
614. D. Stage 4: Conversion of Squalene to the Steroid Nucleus
615. E. Regulation of HMG-CoA Reductase
616. III. Several Fates of Cholesterol
617. IV. Synthesis of Bile Salts
618. A. Conversion of Cholesterol to Cholic Acid and Chenodeoxycholic Acid
619. B. Conjugation of Bile Salts
620. C. Fate of the Bile Salts
621. V. Transport of Cholesterol by the Blood Lipoproteins
622. A. Chylomicrons
623. B. Very-Low-Density Lipoprotein
624. C. Intermediate-Density Lipoprotein and Low-Density Lipoprotein
625. D. High-Density Lipoprotein
626. VI. Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis of Lipoproteins
627. VII. Lipoprotein Receptors
628. A. The LDL Receptor
629. B. LDL Receptor-Related Protein-1
630. C. Macrophage Scavenger Receptor
631. VIII. Anatomic and Biochemical Aspects of Atherosclerosis
632. IX. Steroid Hormones
633. A. Overview of Steroid Hormone Synthesis
634. B. Synthesis of Cortisol
635. C. Synthesis of Aldosterone
636. D. Synthesis of the Adrenal Androgens
637. E. Synthesis of Testosterone
638. F. Synthesis of Estrogens and Progesterone
639. G. Vitamin D Synthesis
640. Chapter 32: Review Questions
641. 33 Metabolism of Ethanol
642. I. Ethanol Metabolism
643. A. Alcohol Dehydrogenase
644. B. Acetaldehyde Dehydrogenases
645. C. Fate of Acetate
646. D. The Microsomal Ethanol-Oxidizing System
647. E. Variations in the Pattern of Ethanol Metabolism
648. F. The Energy Yield of Ethanol Oxidation
649. II. Toxic Effects of Ethanol Metabolism
650. A. Acute Effects of Ethanol Arising from the Increased NADH/NAD+ Ratio
651. B. Acetaldehyde Toxicity
652. C. Ethanol and Free-Radical Formation
653. D. Hepatic Cirrhosis and Loss of Liver Function
654. Chapter 33: Review Questions
655. 34 Integration of Carbohydrate and Lipid Metabolism
656. I. Regulation of Carbohydrate and Lipid Metabolism in the Fed State
657. A. Mechanisms That Affect Glycogen and Triacylglycerol Synthesis in Liver
658. B. Mechanisms That Affect the Fate of Chylomicrons and VLDL
659. C. Mechanisms That Affect Triacylglycerol Storage in Adipose Tissue
660. II. Regulation of Carbohydrate and Lipid Metabolism during Fasting
661. A. Mechanisms in Liver That Serve to Maintain Blood Glucose Levels
662. B. Mechanisms That Affect Lipolysis in Adipose Tissue
663. C. Mechanisms That Affect Ketone Body Production by the Liver
664. D. Regulation of the Use of Glucose and Fatty Acids by Muscle
665. III. The Importance of AMP and Fructose 2,6-Bisphosphate
666. IV. General Summary
667. Chapter 34: Review Questions
668. Section VI: Nitrogen Metabolism
669. 35 Protein Digestion and Amino Acid Absorption
670. I. Protein Digestion
671. A. Digestion in the Stomach
672. B. Digestion by Enzymes from the Pancreas
673. C. Digestion by Enzymes from Intestinal Cells
674. II. Absorption of Amino Acids
675. A. Cotransport of Sodium Ions and Amino Acids
676. B. Transport of Amino Acids into Cells
677. III. Protein Turnover and Replenishment of the Intracellular Amino Acid Pool
678. A. Lysosomal Protein Turnover
679. B. The Ubiquitin–Proteasome Pathway
680. Chapter 35: Review Questions
681. 36 Fate of Amino Acid Nitrogen: Urea Cycle
682. I. Fate of Amino Acid Nitrogen
683. A. Transamination Reactions
684. B. Removal of Amino Acid Nitrogen as Ammonia
685. C. Role of Glutamate in the Metabolism of Amino Acid Nitrogen
686. D. Role of Alanine and Glutamine in Transporting Amino Acid Nitrogen to the Liver
687. II. Urea Cycle
688. A. Reactions of the Urea Cycle
689. B. Origin of Ornithine
690. C. Regulation of the Urea Cycle
691. D. Function of the Urea Cycle during Fasting
692. E. Disorders of the Urea Cycle
693. Chapter 36: Review Questions
694. 37 Synthesis and Degradation of Amino Acids
695. I. The Role of Cofactors in Amino Acid Metabolism
696. II. Amino Acids Derived from Intermediates of Glycolysis
697. A. Serine
698. B. Glycine
699. C. Cysteine
700. D. Alanine
701. III. Amino Acids Related to TCA Cycle Intermediates
702. A. Amino Acids Related through α-Ketoglutarate/Glutamate
703. B. Amino Acids Related to Oxaloacetate (Aspartate and Asparagine)
704. C. Amino Acids That Form Fumarate
705. D. Amino Acids That Form Succinyl CoA
706. IV. Amino Acids That Form Acetyl CoA and Acetoacetate
707. A. Phenylalanine and Tyrosine
708. B. Tryptophan
709. C. Threonine, Isoleucine, Leucine, and Lysine
710. Chapter 37: Review Questions
711. 38 Tetrahydrofolate, Vitamin B12, and S-Adenosylmethionine
712. I. Tetrahydrofolate (FH4)
713. A. Structure and Forms of FH4
714. B. The Vitamin Folate
715. C. Oxidation and Reduction of the One-Carbon Groups of Tetrahydrofolate
716. D. Sources of One-Carbon Groups Carried by FH4
717. E. Recipients of One-Carbon Groups
718. II. Vitamin B12
719. III. S-Adenosylmethionine
720. IV. Relationships among Folate, Vitamin B12, and SAM
721. A. The Methyl-Trap Hypothesis
722. B. Hyperhomocysteinemia
723. C. Neural Tube Defects
724. D. Folate Deficiencies and DNA Synthesis
725. V. Choline and One-Carbon Metabolism
726. Chapter 38: Review Questions
727. 39 Purine and Pyrimidine Metabolism
728. I. Purines and Pyrimidines
729. II. Purine Biosynthesis
730. A. De Novo Synthesis of the Purine Nucleotides
731. B. Purine Salvage Pathways
732. III. Synthesis of the Pyrimidine Nucleotides
733. A. De Novo Pathways
734. B. Salvage of Pyrimidine Bases
735. C. Regulation of De Novo Pyrimidine Synthesis
736. IV. The Production of Deoxyribonucleotides
737. V. Degradation of Purine and Pyrimidine Bases
738. A. Purine Bases
739. B. Pyrimidine Bases
740. Chapter 39: Review Questions
741. 40 Intertissue Relationships in the Metabolism of Amino Acids
742. I. Maintenance of the Free Amino Acid Pool in Blood
743. A. Interorgan Flux of Amino Acids in the Postabsorptive State
744. B. Principles Governing Amino Acid Flux between Tissues
745. II. Utilization of Amino Acids in Individual Tissues
746. A. The Kidney
747. B. Skeletal Muscle
748. D. The Liver
749. E. Brain and Nervous Tissue
750. III. Changes in Amino Acid Metabolism with Dietary and Physiological State
751. A. High-Protein Meal
752. B. Hypercatabolic States
753. Chapter 40: Review Questions
754. Section VII: Tissue Metabolism
755. 41 Actions of Hormones That Regulate Fuel Metabolism
756. I. Physiologic Effects of Insulin and Amylin
757. II. Physiologic Effects of Glucagon
758. III. Physiologic Effects of Other Counterregulatory Hormones
759. A. Somatostatin
760. B. Growth Hormone
761. C. Catecholamines (Epinephrine, Norepinephrine, Dopamine)
762. D. Glucocorticoids
763. E. Thyroid Hormone
764. F. Gastrointestinal-Derived Hormones That Affect Fuel Metabolism
765. G. Neural Factors That Control Secretion of Insulin and Counterregulatory Hormones
766. The Endocannabinoid System and Energy Homeostasis
767. Chapter 41: Review Questions
768. 42 The Biochemistry of Erythrocytes and Other Blood Cells
769. I. Cells of the Blood
770. A. Classification and Functions of Leukocytes and Thrombocytes
771. B. Anemia
772. II. Erythrocyte Metabolism
773. A. The Mature Erythrocyte
774. B. The Erythrocyte Precursor Cells and Heme Synthesis
775. III. The Red Blood Cell Membrane
776. IV. Hematopoiesis
777. A. Cytokines and Hematopoiesis
778. B. Erythropoiesis
779. C. Nutritional Anemias
780. V. Hemoglobinopathies, Hereditary Persistence of Fetal Hemoglobin, and Hemoglobin Switching
781. A. Hemoglobinopathies: Disorders in the Structure or Amount of the Globin Chains
782. B. Thalassemias
783. C. Hereditary Persistence of Fetal Hemoglobin
784. D. Hemoglobin Switching: A Developmental Process Controlled by Transcription Factors
785. E. Structure and Transcriptional Regulation of the α- and β-Globin Gene Loci
786. Chapter 42: Review Questions
787. 43 Blood Plasma Proteins, Coagulation, and Fibrinolysis
788. I. Plasma Proteins Maintain Proper Distribution of Water between Blood and Tissues
789. A. Body Fluid Maintenance between Tissues and Blood
790. B. The Major Serum Protein, Albumin
791. II. The Plasma Contains Proteins That Aid in Immune Defense
792. III. Plasma Proteins Maintain the Integrity of the Circulatory System
793. A. Formation of the Hemostatic Plug
794. B. The Blood Coagulation Cascade
795. C. The Process of Blood Coagulation
796. D. Regulation through Feedback Amplification and Inhibition
797. E. Thromboresistance of Vascular Endothelium
798. F. Fibrinolysis
799. G. Regulation of Fibrinolysis
800. Chapter 43: Review Questions
801. 44 Liver Metabolism
802. I. Liver Anatomy
803. II. Liver Cell Types
804. A. Hepatocytes
805. B. Endothelial Cells
806. C. Kupffer Cells
807. D. Hepatic Stellate Cells
808. E. Pit Cells
809. III. Major Functions of the Liver
810. A. The Liver Is a Central Receiving and Recycling Center for the Body
811. B. Inactivation and Detoxification of Xenobiotic Compounds and Metabolites
812. C. Regulation of Blood Glucose Levels
813. D. Synthesis and Export of Cholesterol and Triacylglycerol
814. E. Ammonia and the Urea Cycle
815. F. Formation of Ketone Bodies
816. G. Nucleotide Biosynthesis
817. H. Synthesis of Blood Proteins
818. I. The Synthesis of Glycoproteins and Proteoglycans
819. J. The Pentose Phosphate Pathway
820. IV. Fuels for the Liver
821. A. Carbohydrate Metabolism in the Liver
822. B. Glucose as a Fuel
823. C. Lipid Metabolism
824. D. Amino Acid Metabolism in the Liver
825. E. Amino Acid Metabolism in Liver Disease
826. V. Diseases of the Liver
827. Chapter 44: Review Questions
828. 45 Metabolism of Muscle at Rest and during Exercise
829. I. Muscle Cell Types
830. A. Skeletal Muscle
831. B. Smooth Muscle Cells
832. C. Cardiac Muscle Cells
833. II. Neuronal Signals to Muscle
834. III. Glycolysis and Fatty Acid Metabolism in Muscle Cells
835. IV. Fuel Utilization in Cardiac Muscle
836. A. Normal Conditions
837. B. Ischemic Conditions
838. V. Fuel Utilization in Skeletal Muscle
839. A. ATP and Creatine Phosphate
840. B. Fuel Use at Rest
841. C. Fuel Use during Starvation
842. D. Fuel Utilization during Exercise
843. VI. Mild and Moderate-Intensity Long-Term Exercise
844. A. Lactate Release Decreases with Duration of Exercise
845. B. Blood Glucose as a Fuel
846. C. Free Fatty Acids as a Source of ATP
847. D. Branched-Chain Amino Acids
848. E. The Purine Nucleotide Cycle
849. F. Acetate
850. VII. Metabolic Effects of Training on Muscle Metabolism
851. Chapter 45: Review Questions
852. 46 Metabolism of the Nervous System
853. I. Cell Types of the Nervous System
854. A. Neurons
855. B. Neuroglial Cells
856. II. THE BLOOD–BRAIN BARRIER
857. A. Capillary Structure
858. B. Transport through the Blood–Brain Barrier
859. III. SYNTHESIS OF SMALL NITROGEN-CONTAINING NEUROTRANSMITTERS
860. A. General Features of Neurotransmitter Synthesis
861. B. Dopamine, Norepinephrine, and Epinephrine
862. C. Metabolism of Serotonin
863. D. Metabolism of Histamine
864. E. Acetylcholine
865. F. Glutamate and GABA
866. G. Other Amino Acid Neurotransmitters
867. IV. METABOLIC ENCEPHALOPATHIES AND NEUROPATHIES
868. A. Hypoglycemic Encephalopathy
869. B. Hypoxic Encephalopathy
870. C. Relationship between Glutamate Synthesis and the Anaplerotic Pathways of Pyruvate Carboxylase and Methylmalonyl CoA Mutase
871. V. LIPID SYNTHESIS IN THE BRAIN AND PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
872. A. Brain Lipid Synthesis and Oxidation
873. B. Myelin Synthesis
874. Chapter 46: Review Questions
875. 47 The Extracellular Matrix and Connective Tissue